Vol. 11, Issue 3, Part C (2025)

Abstract
The Upanishads, as the culmination of Vedic thought, present a profound philosophical exploration of existence, reality, and the nature of the self. Central to these ancient texts is the conflict between materialism and idealism, where materialism emphasizes the primacy of the physical world, while idealism underscores the importance of the spiritual essence of reality. This debate laid the foundation for the Advaitic (non-dual) philosophy, which reconciles these opposing views by positing that the individual self (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman) are one. The Upanishads also marked a significant shift in religious practices, moving from external rituals to internal spiritual practices such as meditation and self-inquiry. Additionally, the concept of Moksha, or liberation, was redefined as the realization of one’s unity with Brahman, offering a path of personal spiritual transformation accessible to all. This philosophical evolution, alongside the integration of spirituality into secular life, not only influenced the development of later schools of thought, such as Buddhism and Jainism, but also transformed the social and religious structures of ancient India. The Upanishads’ teachings on self-realization, liberation, and the democratization of spiritual knowledge continue to resonate in contemporary spiritual practices.